IB Chemistry, Structure to Reactivity

Introduction to the particulate nature of matter

Elements, compounds and mixtures, separation techniques, and the kinetic molecular model of the states of matter and changes of state.

The nuclear atom

Protons, neutrons and electrons, isotopes, and calculating relative atomic mass from isotopic abundances.

HL adds: AHL: interpreting mass spectra to find the relative atomic mass of an element from its isotopic composition.

Electron configurations

Emission spectra and energy levels in the hydrogen atom, and filling orbitals (Aufbau principle, Hund's rule, Pauli exclusion) up to Z = 36.

HL adds: AHL: calculating ionization energy from the convergence limit of the hydrogen spectrum and explaining trends and discontinuities in first and successive ionization energies.

Counting particles by mass: The mole

The mole and Avogadro's constant, molar mass, empirical and molecular formulas, molar concentration and Avogadro's law.

Ideal gases

The ideal gas model and its limitations, the gas laws and the ideal gas equation PV = nRT, and how real gases deviate from ideal behavior.

The ionic model

Ion formation, ionic bonding and lattice structures, and how lattice enthalpy explains the properties of ionic compounds.

The covalent model

Lewis formulas, coordination bonds, VSEPR shapes, bond and molecular polarity, intermolecular forces, giant covalent structures and chromatography.

HL adds: AHL: resonance and delocalization (including benzene), expanded octets with 5 and 6 electron domains, formal charge, sigma and pi bonds, and hybridization.

The metallic model

Metallic bonding as cations in a sea of delocalized electrons, explaining electrical conductivity, malleability and melting-point trends.

HL adds: AHL: transition elements have delocalized d-electrons, which helps explain their high melting points and conductivity.

From models to materials

Using the bonding triangle to place materials on a continuum of ionic, covalent and metallic bonding; alloys and addition polymers.

HL adds: AHL: condensation polymers (polyesters, polyamides) formed with the loss of small molecules such as water.

The periodic table: Classification of elements

Periodic trends in atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity, the acid–base character of oxides, and oxidation states.

HL adds: AHL: transition elements, including variable oxidation states, colored complexes explained by d-orbital splitting, and magnetic properties.

Functional groups: Classification of organic compounds

Representing organic molecules, functional groups and homologous series, IUPAC nomenclature, structural isomers, and identification by IR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and ¹H NMR.

HL adds: AHL: stereoisomerism (cis–trans and optical isomers) and deeper spectroscopic analysis, including splitting patterns in high-resolution ¹H NMR.

Measuring enthalpy changes

Exothermic and endothermic reactions, energy profiles, and measuring ΔH by calorimetry with Q = mcΔT.

Energy cycles in reactions

Bond enthalpies and Hess's law, including using standard enthalpies of formation and combustion to calculate enthalpy changes.

HL adds: AHL: Born–Haber cycles to calculate lattice enthalpies of ionic compounds.

Energy from fuels

Complete and incomplete combustion of fuels, fossil fuels and biofuels, the environmental impact of carbon emissions, and fuel cells.

Entropy and spontaneity

Entropy as a measure of energy dispersal, the Gibbs energy equation ΔG = ΔH − TΔS, and how temperature decides whether a reaction is spontaneous; ΔG is also linked to the position of equilibrium.

How much? The amount of chemical change

Balanced equations and reacting masses, gas volumes and solution concentrations, the limiting reactant, percentage yield and atom economy.

How fast? The rate of chemical change

Measuring rates, collision theory, activation energy, Maxwell–Boltzmann distributions, and the effects of temperature, concentration, surface area and catalysts.

HL adds: AHL: rate equations and orders from experimental data, rate constants, reaction mechanisms with a rate-determining step, and the Arrhenius equation.

How far? The extent of chemical change

Dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium constant expression K, the meaning of its magnitude, and Le Châtelier's principle.

HL adds: AHL: the reaction quotient Q, calculating K and equilibrium concentrations, and the relationship ΔG° = −RT ln K.

Proton transfer reactions

Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases, conjugate pairs, amphiprotic species, the pH scale, Kw, strong vs weak acids and bases, and neutralization.

HL adds: AHL: pOH, Ka, Kb, pKa and pKb calculations, the pH of salt solutions, pH titration curves, indicators and buffer solutions.

Electron transfer reactions

Oxidation states, redox half-equations, the activity series, primary and secondary cells, electrolysis of molten salts, and redox reactions of organic compounds.

HL adds: AHL: standard electrode potentials, E°cell and ΔG° = −nFE°, electrolysis of aqueous solutions and electroplating.

Electron sharing reactions

Radicals formed by homolytic fission, and the initiation, propagation and termination steps of free-radical substitution of alkanes with halogens.

Electron-pair sharing reactions

Nucleophiles and electrophiles, heterolytic fission, nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes, electrophilic addition to alkenes, and Lewis acids and bases (electron-pair acceptors and donors).

HL adds: AHL: SN1 vs SN2 mechanisms, electrophilic addition of hydrogen halides with Markovnikov's rule, and electrophilic substitution of benzene.